Drinking water quality and human health risk evaluations in rural and urban areas of Ibeju-Lekki and Epe local government areas, Lagos, Nigeria

This study evaluated the drinking water quality and associated human health risks in three (3) rural and urban areas each in Ibeju-Lekki and Epe local government areas of Lagos, Nigeria. Two hundred structured questionnaires were administered to stakeholders, and samples were obtained from prevailing drinking water sources in the study areas using standard methods for microbiological, physicochemical, heavy metals and human health risk evaluations. Wells and boreholes were the major sources of drinking water in the rural and urban areas, respectively. Drinking water samples from the study areas contained more than one pathogenic bacterium. The physicochemical parameters except total organic carbon (TOC) were within permissible limits of the Nigerian Standard for Drinking Water Quality (NSDWQ). The mean values of Cd and As exceeded the maximum permissible limit of NSDWQ. The hazard quotient of cadmium and arsenic was greater than 1 indicating potential health risks if the water is not treated. In order to achieve the UN Sustainable Development Goal 6 on clean water and sanitation by the next decade (2030), we recommend that frequent monitoring, treatment and stakeholders education on drinking water treatment techniques should be actively conducted particularly in rural areas in the state, country, region and continent.