A hybrid redox flow battery with high energy efficiency using a low cost sandwiched membrane as a separator and LiMn2O4 as a cathode

Here we report a PVDF/PMMA-LiClO4/PVDF sandwiched separator that can only conduct lithium ions rather than protons. With LiMn2O4 and Cr3+ aqueous solution employed as the positive and negative electrodes, respectively, an economic hybrid redox flow battery (HRFB) is fabricated.