Wildlife conflict resolution: a review of problems, solutions and regulation in England

Past hunter-gatherer societies are often perceived as having co-existed harmoniously with their environment. In reality, few ecosystems remain unaltered following the arrival of humans and the relationship between people and wildlife over the past thousand years is characterised more by conflict than harmony. Over this period, many industrialised countries, particularly in Europe, have seen a substantial loss of natural habitats, in parallel with huge increases in human populations. England is one such country; here, the human population is estimated to have increased 45-fold since 1066 AD. Over the past 50 years, however, many of these countries have witnessed a change in public attitudes, leading to 'protective' legislation for species and habitats, with the subsequent recovery of at least some species. As a result, some people now argue that certain species are 'over-protected', leading to calls to remove protection. We review how the regulatory system in England is used to achieve a sustainable balance between wildlife and human interests, illustrated with examples from key areas of conflict. In all, more than 8000 licences permitting activities affecting protected species are issued in England each year, about half of which concern human-wildlife conflicts, including almost 1000 aimed at preventing serious damage by wildlife. We estimate that wildlife licences are relied on by more than 100 000 people to resolve human-wildlife conflicts. In most cases, less than 1% of a species' population is likely to be affected by regulated activities and, where this is not the case, thresholds are set to ensure the control measures do not lead to the long-term detriment of populations. We conclude by suggesting how the legislative framework may need to adapt to deliver modern aspirations to reconcile human and wildlife interests.