The determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the urine of non-smoking Polish pregnant women

The aim of this study was to characterize the PAH exposure level among the non-smoking Polish pregnant women and to identify the minimal set of PAH metabolites that specifically reflect environmental PAH exposure. The study population consisted of 210 non-smoking pregnant women. The urine sample was used for analysis of the following PAH metabolites: 1-, 2-, 3-, 4-, 9-hydroxyphenanthrene (1-, 2-, 3-, 4-, 9-OH-PHE), 1-hydroxypyrene (1-OH-PYR), 1,6 + 1,8-dihydroxypyrene (DI-OH-PYR), phenanthrene trans-1,2-dihydrodiol (PHE-1,2-diol) and phenanthrene trans-9,10-dihydrodiol (PHE-9,10-diol). The analysis of all the biomarkers was performed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry after their derivatization. The mean PAH metabolite concentrations were in the range of 0.15 (+/- 0.2) mu g/g creatinine for 9-OH-PHE to 5.9 (+/- 10.6) mu g/g creatinine for PHE-9,10-diol. Women living in the city center had higher concentrations of 1-OH-PHE (beta = 0.6; p = 0.04), 3-OH-PHE = 0.8; p = 0.02), 9-OH-PHE (beta = 0.9; p = 0.02), and DI-OH-PYR (beta = 1.0; p = 0.006) than those living outside the city center. The usage of coal for residential heating was a significant predictor of all PAH metabolites except for 9-OH-PHE (p = 0.1) and PHE-9,10-diol (p = 0.08). With the increasing cotinine levels we observed a significant increase in the concentrations of the following PAH metabolites: 3-OH-PHE = 0.2; p = 0.007), 4-OH-PHE (beta = 0.3; p = 0.002), PHE-1,2-diol (beta = 0.3; p < 0.001), 1-OH-PYR (beta = 02; p = 0.01). Highdensity housing, usage of coal for residential heating, cotinine level in saliva, season of urine collection and distance from the place of residence to the main road explained 26% of the variance of 3-OH-PHE and 21% of the variance of 1-OH-PHE. 2-OH-PHE, 3-OH-PHE, 9-OH-PHE and PHE-9,10-diol are sufficient to predict environmental PAH exposure. The urinary PAH biomarker levels found in this study indicate that non-smoking Polish pregnant women suffer from a higher PAH exposure than those in other western countries. This higher PAH exposure level probably poses a significant health risk for the newborns and young children and will require further attention in the future. (C) 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.