Coupling diverse routes of calcium entry to mitochondrial dysfunction and glutamate excitotoxicity

Overactivation of NMDA receptors (NMDARs) is a critical early step in glutamate-evoked excitotoxic injury of CNS neurons. Distinct NMDAR-coupled pathways specified by, for example, receptor location or subunit composition seem to govern glutamate-induced excitotoxic death, but there is much uncertainty concerning the underlying mechanisms of pathway selection. Here we ask whether, and if so how, route-specific vulnerability is coupled to Ca2+ overload and mitochondrial dysfunction, which is also a known, central component of exitotoxic injury. In cultured hippocampal neurons, over-activation of only extrasynaptic NMDARs resulted in Ca2+ entry strong enough to promote Ca2+ overload, which subsequently leads to mitochondrial dysfunction and cell death. Receptor composition per se appears not to be a primary factor for specifying signal coupling, as NR2B inhibition abolished Ca2+ loading and was protective only in predominantly NR2B-expressing young neurons. In older neurons expressing comparable levels of NR2A- and NR2B-containing NMDARs, amelioration of Ca2+ overload required the inhibition of extrasynaptic receptors containing both NR2 subunits. Prosurvival synaptic stimuli also evoked Ca2+ entry through both N2A- and NR2B-containing NMDARs, but, in contrast to excitotoxic activation of extrasynaptic NMDARs, produced only low-amplitude cytoplasmic Ca2+ spikes and modest, nondamaging mitochondrial Ca2+ accumulation. The results-showing that the various routes of excitotoxic Ca2+ entry converge on a common pathway involving Ca2+ overload-induced mitochondrial dysfunction-reconcile and unify many aspects of the route-specific'' and calcium load-dependent'' views of exitotoxic injury.