Influence of smoking on human milk tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1β, and soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 levels at postpartum seventh day

Background: The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of maternal smoking during pregnancy on human milk interleukin-1 beta, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 levels at the postpartum seventh day. Methods: Forty-four mothers (age range: 21-34 years) were enrolled in the study. Mothers were interviewed and classified according to their smoking status into one of two groups: the smoking mothers (n = 21) and the nonsmoking mothers (n = 23). Results: There were no significant differences between study groups with respect to human milk interleukin-1 beta (P = 0.12) and soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 levels (P = 0.83). However, TNF-alpha levels were found to be significantly lower in the smoking mothers compared with the controls (P = 0.002). Conclusion: This study shows that maternal smoking during pregnancy affects the levels of TNF-alpha in milk. The protective effect of human milk against infections seems to be impaired in smoking mothers.