Relationships among nectar-dwelling yeasts, flowers and ants: patterns and incidence on nectar traits

Nectar-dwelling yeasts are emerging as widely distributed organisms playing a potentially significant and barely unexplored ecological role in plant pollinator mutualisms. Previous efforts at understanding nectarpollinatoryeast interactions have focused on bee-pollinated plants, while the importance of nectarivorous ants as vectors for yeast dispersal remains unexplored so far. Here we assess the abundance and composition of the nectar fungal microbiota of the ant-pollinated plant Cytinus hypocistis, study whether yeast transmission is coupled with ant visitation, and discern whether ant- transported yeasts promote changes in nectar characteristics. Our results show that a high percentage of flowers (77%) and plants (94%) contained yeasts, with yeast cell density in nectar reaching up to 6.2 x 104 cells mm-3, being the highest densities associated with the presence of the nectar-specialist yeast Metschnikowia reukaufii. The establishment of fungal microbiota in nectar required flower visitation by ants, with 70% of yeast species transported by them being also detected in nectar. Ant-vectored yeasts diminished the nutritional quality of nectar, with flowers exposed to pollinators and yeasts containing significantly lower nectar sugar concentration than virgin flowers (13.4% and 22.8%, respectively). Nectar of flowers that harbored M. reukaufii showed the lowest quality, with nectar concentration declining significantly with increasing yeast density. Additionally, yeasts modified patterns of interpopulation variation in nectar traits, homo genizing differences between populations in some nectar attributes. We show for the first time that the outcome of the tripartite pollinatorfloweryeast interaction is highly dependent on the identity and inherent properties of the participants, even to the extent of influencing the species composition of this ternary system, and can be mediated by ecological characteristics of plant populations. Through their influence on plant functional traits, yeasts have the potential to alter nectar consumption, pollinator foraging behavior and ultimately plant reproduction.