Journal
NEUROLOGY
Volume 71, Issue 16, Pages 1275-1282Publisher
LIPPINCOTT WILLIAMS & WILKINS
DOI: 10.1212/01.wnl.0000327601.46315.85
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Funding
- NIH Intramural Program
- Control of eyelids in normal and pathological states [EY07391]
- Advanced Neuromodulation Systems
- Allergan, Inc.
- Boehringer-Ingelheim
- Ceregene, Inc.
- EMD
- Eisai
- Ipsen Limited
- Huntington's Disease Society of America
- Kyowa Pharmaceuticals
- Medtronic
- Merz Pharmaceuticals
- National Institutes of Health
- National Parkinson Foundation
- Novartis
- Ortho-McNeil
- Parkinson Study Group
- Prestwick Pharmaceuticals
- Schering
- Schwarz Pharma/UCB
- Teva
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This review updates understanding and research on blepharospasm, a subtype of focal dystonia. Topics covered include clinical aspects, pathology, pathophysiology, animal models, dry eye, photophobia, epidemiology, genetics, and treatment. Blepharospasm should be differentiated from apraxia of eyelid opening. New insights into pathology and pathophysiology are derived from different types of imaging, including magnetic resonance studies. Physiologic studies indicate increased plasticity and trigeminal sensitization. While botulinum neurotoxin injections are the mainstay of therapy, other therapies are on the horizon.
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