XPS analysis of nanostructured materials and biological surfaces

This paper examines the types of information that XPS can provide about a variety of nanostructured materials. Although it is sometimes not considered a nanoscale analysis method, XPS can provide a great deal of information about elemental distributions, layer or coating structure and thicknesses, surface functionality, and even particles sizes on the 1-20 nm scale for sample types that may not be readily analyzed by other methods. This information is important for both synthetic nanostructured or nanosized materials and a variety of natural materials with nanostructure. Although the links between nanostructure materials and biological systems may not at first be obvious, many biological molecules and some organisms are the sizes of nanoparticles. The nanostructure of cells and microbes plays a significant role in how they interact with their environment. The interaction of biomolecules with nanoparticles is important for medical and toxicity studies. The interaction of biomolecules is important for sensor function and many nanomaterials are now the active elements in sensors. This paper first discusses how nanostructures influences XPS data as a part of understanding how simple models of sample structure and data analysis can be used to extract information about the physical and chemical structures of the materials being analyzed. Equally important, aspects of sample and analysis limitations and challenges associated with understanding nanostructured materials are indicated. Examples of the application of XPS to nanostructured and biological systems and materials are provided. (C) 2009 Published by Elsevier B.V.