Sufficiency or efficiency to achieve lower resource consumption and emissions? The role of the rebound effect

A frequent criticism of eco-efficiency strategies is that an increase in efficiency can be offset by the rebound effect. Sufficiency is discussed as a new strategy involving self-imposed restriction of consumption but can also be subject to the rebound effect. We show that the range of possible secondary effects of efficiency and sufficiency strategies goes beyond the rebound effect. The rebound effect can indeed also be linked to eco-sufficiency strategies but there are further secondary effects of both ecoefficiency and eco-sufficiency strategies, such as double dividend effects. We develop an 'Eco-efficiency-sufficiency matrix' to logically order eco-efficiency and sufficiency measures to attain lower resource consumption and emissions. (C) 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.