The toxic dinoflagellate Cochlodinium polykrikoides (Dinophyceae) produces resting cysts

While harmful algal blooms (HABs) caused by the toxic dinoflagellate Cochlodinium polykrikoides have been known to science for more than a century, the past two decades have witnessed an extraordinary expansion of these events across Asia, North America, and even Europe. Although the production of resting cysts and subsequent transport via ships' ballast water or/and the transfer of shellfish stocks could facilitate this expansion, confirmative evidence for cyst production by C. polykrikoides is not available. Here, we provide visual confirmation of the production of resting cysts by C. polykrikoides in laboratory cultures isolated from North America. Evidence includes sexually mating cell pairs, planozygotes with two longitudinal flagella, formation of both pellicular (temporary) cysts and resting cysts, and a time series of the cyst germination process. Resting cyst germination occurred up to 1 month after cyst formation and 2-40% of resting cysts were successfully germinated in cultures maintained at 18-21 degrees C. Pellicular cysts with hyaline membranes were generally larger than resting cysts, displayed discernable cingulum and/or sulcus, and reverted to vegetative cells within 24 h to similar to 1 week of formation. A putative armored stage of C. polykrikoides was not observed during any life cycle stage in this study. This definitive evidence of resting cyst production by C polykrikoides provides a mechanism to account for the recurrence of annual blooms in given locales as well as the global expansion of C. polykrikoides blooms during the past two decades. (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.